² U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1994 (Washington, DC, Jul. 1995), 9.
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³ Annual Energy Review 1994, 235. Renewable energy as used in this paper includes direct solar, wind, biomass, non-conventional hydropower and geothermal resources. Wood and municipal waste burning (biomass) and geothermal energy, about 80% of which is produced by non-utility generators, comprise nearly all of the electricity currently generated from these renewable resources. Renewable energy use in road transportation is minimal. Ethanol obtained mainly from corn fermentation constitutes about 1% of the fuel used in automobiles, but the heavy use of fossil fuels by current agricultural practices renders ethanol non-sustainable as now produced. Annual Energy Review 1994, 231, 265.
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⁴ Annual Energy Review 1994, 137.
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⁵ U.S. Energy Information Administration, State Energy Data Report, 1993 (Washington, DC, Jul. 1995), 15.
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⁶ Annual Energy Review 1994, 139, 159.
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⁷ C. Steinhart, and J. Steinhart, Energy: Sources, Uses, and Role in Human Affairs (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1974), 112.
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⁸ There is an extensive literature analyzing full fuel cycle energy systems, including the various steps in the conversion of primary energy resources into intermediary energy carriers capable of powering end use technologies that provide energy services. A particularly lucid analysis of the architecture" of energy systems, which discusses hydrogen as well as electricity as attractive energy carriers for renewable energy, is D. Scott, Hydrogen in the Evolving Energy System," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 18 (Mar. 1993).
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⁹ Annual Energy Review 1994, 231.
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¹⁰ An entertaining history of electric vehicles is M. Schiffer, Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994). The topic is also discussed in J. Cannon, Harnessing Hydrogen: The Key to Sustainable Transportation (New York: INFORM Inc., 1995), chapters I, III.
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¹¹ Five types of fuel cells are now under development. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell is best suited for transportation applications. Most prototype fuel cell vehicles are outfitted with proton exchange membrane technology. Other technologies are the phosphoric acid, alkaline, molten carbonate, and solid oxide fuel cells.
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¹² Hydrogen storage issues are discussed in Harnessing Hydrogen: The Key to Sustainable Transportation, chapter V. Specific comparisons between hydrogen and battery storage systems appear on pages 132-142.
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¹³ Conventional brakes waste the energy released as heat that is generated by the friction of the brake shoes when a vehicle slows down. Regenerative brakes are equipped with electrical generators that capture some of this energy and use it to produce electricity to propel the vehicle.
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¹⁴ New leading periodicals that monitor current events in the hydrogen field include the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Letter, published by Peter Hoffman in Rhinecliff, NY; and the Clean Fuels and Electric Vehicles Report, published by J.E. Sinor Consultants in Niwot, CO.
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¹⁵ International Energy Agency, Hydrogen Energy Activities in 11 IEA Countries (Silver Spring, MD: International Planning Associates, Inc., Dec. 1994).
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¹⁶ This paper does not review all the relevant transportation issues or opportunities for renewable resource use. There are other options for sustainable transportation besides hydrogen and grid-charged battery electric vehicles, such as biomass-derived alcohol fuels in combustion engine vehicles. Other renewable energy market entry opportunities besides transportation and centralized power generation exist as well, such as distributed remote and roof-top solar applications.
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¹⁷ Edison Electric Institute, Statistical Yearbook - 1992 (Washington, DC, 1993), 29.
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¹⁸ Gas Research Institute, 1993 Edition of the GRI Baseline Projection of the U.S. Energy Supply and Demand to 2010 (Chicago, IL, 1993), 71-84.
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¹⁹ Annual Energy Review 1994, 139.
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²⁰ For example, if China were to increase its per capita consumption of oil to an amount equivalent to the per capita consumption of Mexico, global oil production would have to increase by 70%. Energy Futures, Inc. calculations using data from the American Automobile Manufacturers Association, World Motor Vehicle Data: 1996 Edition (Detroit, MI, 1996).
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²¹ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1995 (Washington, DC, Oct. 1996). Although detailed emission inventories within the transportation category are lacking, cars, buses, and trucks probably account for between 65% and 85% of total transportation-related air pollution. Because these vehicular emissions occur at ground level and mostly in populated areas, their public health impact likely exceeds their percentage contribution.
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²² For further information, see Curtis Moore, Dying Needlessly: Sickness and Death Due to Energy-Related Air Pollution, REPP Issue Brief 6, February 1997.
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²³ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Quality Emissions Trends Report, 1994, Washington, DC, 1995.
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²⁴ Annual Energy Review 1994, 181.
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²⁵ Use of reformulated gasoline and cleaner grades of diesel will not be sufficient to restore urban air quality and they do nothing to reduce oil dependence. See J. Cannon, Reformulated Gasoline: Cleaner Air on the Road to Nowhere (New York: INFORM, Inc., 1994).
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²⁶ Estimates by Energy Futures, Inc. from data in Energy Information Administration, Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels: 1995 (Washington, DC, 1996).
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²⁷ Natural gas vehicle technology and its synergy with hydrogen vehicles are discussed in J. Cannon, Paving the Way to Natural Gas Vehicles (New York: Inform, Inc., 1993).
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²⁸ International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change (Paris, France, 1993).
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